Looking upward from the foot of a pitch-black volcanic stone staircase at nearly one thousand meters on the southwestern slopes of Mount Agung in Karangasem Regency, a pilgrim sees a towering split gateway known as Candi Bentar opening onto six successive terraced courtyards that climb straight into the clouds. Behind a richly carved roofed portal called Kori Agung rises a forest of timber pagodas thatched with black sugar-palm fiber (ijuk), stacked in odd-numbered tiers of three, five, seven, nine, and eleven roofs against the smoking cone of Mount Agung over three thousand meters high.
This is Pura Besakih Mother Temple (Balinese: Pura Agung Besakih, ᬧᭂᬭᬅᬕᬸᬦ᭄ᬩᭂᬲᬓᬶᬄ, Besakih Temple), the supreme spiritual center and Mother Temple (Pura Ibu or Pura Kahyangan Jagat) of the entire community practicing Balinese Hinduism (Agama Hindu Dharma). Rather than a single freestanding sanctuary, Besakih is a vast religious complex of 23 closely interconnected temples aligned along volcanic ridges, blending an Austronesian megalithic mountain-worship tradition more than two thousand years old with Vedic philosophy, Shaivism, and Vajrayana Buddhism transmitted from India and Java.
IThe dragon deity Basuki, sage Rsi Markandeya, and the Supreme Being Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa
Pura Besakih belongs to Balinese Hinduism (Agama Hindu Dharma), a distinctive form of Hinduism preserved intact on the island of Bali and parts of Lombok after the wider Indonesian archipelago embraced Islam between the 15th and 16th centuries. In Balinese Hindu theology, the one invisible Supreme Being is revered as Ida Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa (corresponding to the absolute Brahman of Vedic philosophy). When manifesting to create, sustain, and transform the cosmos, Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa appears as the Trimurti (or Tri Purusha): Brahma (the South, red, the element of Fire), Vishnu (the North, black or dark blue, the element of Water), and Shiva (the Center, white or five-colored, the unifier).
The name Besakih derives from the Sanskrit word Vasuki (pronounced Basuki in Old Javanese and Balinese), the name of the great serpent king (Naga) who coiled around Mount Mandara so the gods (Devas) and demons (Asuras) could churn the Ocean of Milk for the elixir of immortality (Amrita) in Hindu mythology. To the Balinese people, the Mount Agung volcano is the cosmic mountain Mahameru transplanted to anchor their island, while the dragon deity Naga Basuki dwelling beneath the mountain preserves seismic balance and feeds the springs that irrigate Bali's Subak rice terraces.
Unlike Hindu temples in India or the Prambanan Temple Compounds in Java, which build enclosed stone chambers to house stone or bronze icons, Balinese temples are open-air courtyards under the sky. Balinese believers hold that deities do not reside permanently inside physical statues, but descend temporarily (turun) from the summit of Mount Agung and the heavens to take their seats upon an empty stone throne called a Padmasana (Lotus Throne) or inside the thatched Meru pagodas whenever devotees gather in sincere festival worship.
According to traditional Balinese palm-leaf chronicles (such as the Babad Markandeya) and the World Heritage nomination dossier submitted to UNESCO by the Indonesian Ministry of Culture, the history of Besakih begins in prehistory with megalithic stepped pyramid terraces (Punden Berundak) erected roughly 2,000 years ago to venerate ancestral spirits and the spirit of Mount Agung. In the 8th century CE, the great Hindu sage Rsi Markandeya traveled from Mount Raung in East Java with a band of followers to clear the forests of Bali. After illness struck his first expedition because proper mountain offerings had not been made, he meditated and returned with 400 disciples to bury an earthenware vessel containing the Five Metals (Panca Datu, consisting of gold, silver, copper, iron, and lead along with precious stones) and holy water at the foot of Mount Agung, naming the site Basuki (meaning Safe and Auspicious). Building upon Rsi Markandeya's foundation, King Sri Kesari Warmadewa in the early 10th century and the monarchs of the Gelgel and Klungkung dynasties from the 14th to the 18th centuries expanded Besakih into the national Mother Temple complex seen today.
First-time visitors to Bali often assume Pura Besakih is a single building. In reality, it is a cosmological network of 23 distinct public temples spread across more than three square kilometers along the mountain ridges. Beyond the largest central sanctuary of Pura Penataran Agung open to all worshippers, the complex includes directional temples guarding the cardinal points, royal ancestral temples, and the four Catur Lawa temples (Ratu Pasek, Ratu Pande, Ratu Penyarikan, and Ratu Dukuh Seganing) maintained by the four major traditional guild clans of Balinese society (blacksmiths, scribes, village leaders, and mountain priests).
IIOver twelve hundred years from the Panca Datu ritual to the 1963 lava miracle
Situated directly on the flank of an active stratovolcano along the Pacific Ring of Fire, the history of Pura Besakih is a chronicle of post-earthquake reconstructions and the steadfast spiritual devotion of the Balinese people facing the natural power of sacred Mount Agung.
- Prehistory (BCE)Megalithic stepped sanctuaries (Punden Berundak)Indigenous Austronesian communities build stepped stone terraces and standing menhirs on the slopes of Mount Agung to venerate mountain spirits and ancestors, with several ancient megaliths still preserved inside Pura Batu Madeg and Pura Penataran Agung.
- 8th centurySage Rsi Markandeya buries the Five Metals to found BasukiSage Rsi Markandeya arrives from Java and performs the Panca Datu ritual burying five sacred metals at the base of the mountain to invoke safety (Basuki), establishing Pura Basukian and the nucleus of the Besakih complex.
- 914 to 1007Royal expansion under King Sri Kesari Warmadewa and King UdayanaKing Sri Kesari Warmadewa establishes a Meru victory shrine at Besakih in the early 10th century, and by the early 11th century King Udayana and Queen Mahendradatta (mother of King Airlangga) standardize Shaiva and Buddhist state rituals at the sanctuary.
- 14th to 15th centuriesState temple of the Gelgel dynasty and the Bradah edicts (1444, 1458)Following Majapahit cultural influence from Java, rulers of the Gelgel dynasty (Dalem Ketut Ngulesir and Dalem Waturenggong) elevate Pura Penataran Agung into the central state sanctuary of the kingdom, recorded in two wooden inscriptions dated 1444 and 1458.
- 21 January 1917Grand restoration after the great 1917 Bali earthquakeA severe earthquake on 21 January 1917 topples numerous stone gateways and Meru pagodas at Besakih, prompting the traditional kings (Rajas) of all eight Balinese regencies to pool resources and rebuild the entire complex according to classical canons.
- February and March 1963Miraculous survival from Mount Agung's lava during the Eka Dasa Rudra ceremonyJust as the Balinese people are conducting the once-in-a-century Eka Dasa Rudra cosmic purification festival at Besakih in March 1963, Mount Agung erupts violently after more than a century of dormancy. Rivers of molten lava and pyroclastic flows devastate surrounding villages but split into channels passing just meters from the walls of Besakih, sparing the main temple complex.
- 1995 and 2018UNESCO Tentative List (1995) and National Cultural Property designation (2018)In 1995 the Indonesian government places Pura Besakih on the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List (ref. 600), and in 2018 the Ministry of Education and Culture designates Besakih a National Cultural Property (Cagar Budaya Nasional).
A review of literature on Pura Besakih reveals two statistical variations across sources that merit clarification. Regarding the number of temples in the complex, some older travel guides list 22 temples (or 18 subsidiary temples around 1 central temple, or count every small clan and village shrine in the valley to reach 86 shrines), whereas the official registry of the Pura Agung Besakih Management Board and the Indonesian Ministry of Culture defines the core Kahyangan Jagat public complex at Besakih as consisting of 23 temples. Regarding the number of terraced courtyards in the central Pura Penataran Agung, most architectural studies record 6 terraced courtyards (representing Sad Kertih or the celestial planes), while a few sources include the outer entry forecourt before the Candi Bentar split gate to count 7 levels (corresponding to Sapta Loka, the seven heavens of Vedic cosmology). Both counting systems are noted here for clarity.
IIIThe six terraced courtyards of Pura Penataran Agung, the Padmasana Tiga throne, and the directional temples
The heart of all 23 sanctuaries is Pura Penataran Agung (the Great Temple of State), the largest temple occupying the central axis across 6 stepped stone courtyards ascending the slope of Mount Agung. Passing through the towering split gateway Candi Bentar (symbolizing the cosmic mountain cleaved into two halves of duality, good and evil, through which the pilgrim walks the middle path) and the roofed ceremonial portal Kori Agung (the Great Gate leading into the divine realm), visitors enter the second courtyard housing the Bale Kulkul (wooden slit-drum pavilion) and the 24-column Bale Agung assembly hall where village elders and sacred deity palanquins gather.
Standing in the second courtyard (the ritual heart of Pura Penataran Agung) is Besakih's most celebrated architectural monument: a high carved stone plinth resting upon the cosmic turtle Bedawang Nala coiled by the two divine serpents Naga Basuki and Naga Anantaboga, supporting three side-by-side empty stone thrones known as the Padmasana Tiga (Triple Lotus Throne, dating from the 17th century). Unlike single-seat Padmasana shrines elsewhere in Bali, these three stone seats represent Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa as Tri Purusha (Shiva, Sadashiva, and Paramashiva) as well as the Trimurti: the right throne draped in red cloth honors Brahma, the left throne in black honors Vishnu, and the central throne in white honors Shiva.
Spread across the second and third courtyards of Pura Penataran Agung are more than fifty structures, dominated by multi-tiered timber pagodas called Pelinggih Meru (modeling the cosmic mountain Mahameru). Their roofs are thatched with durable black ijuk fibers harvested from the sugar palm (Arenga pinnata), always built in odd numbers of tiers (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, up to a maximum of 11 tiers). The soaring 11-tiered Meru (Meru Tumpang Sebelas) is reserved for the descent of Shiva and the deity of Mount Agung (Bhatara Putra Jaya), while a 9-tiered Meru honors Kubera (the deity of wealth).
Climbing stone staircases from the third courtyard through the fourth, fifth, and uppermost sixth courtyard (each progressively narrower and quieter as it nears the mountain peak), the ornate Meru towers give way to simple stone thrones dedicated to high mountain deities and deified ancestors, culminating at the top terrace honoring Sang Hyang Giri Putri (the Mountain Goddess) and Sang Hyang Surya (the Sun God) directly facing the summit cone of Mount Agung.
Just below the southeastern corner of Pura Penataran Agung stands Pura Basukian (Puseh Jagat), where sage Rsi Markandeya buried the Panca Datu vessel of five metals in the 8th century, revered as the navel (Puseh) of the entire complex. Surrounding the central temple in the four cardinal directions to form a five-point mandala (Panca Dewata) are four major sanctuaries: Pura Gelap in the East (dedicated to Iswara, white), Pura Kiduling Kreteg in the South (Brahma, red), Pura Ulun Kulkul in the West (Mahadeva, yellow), and Pura Batu Madeg in the North (Vishnu, black).
| Feature | Dimensions and structure | Reference source |
|---|---|---|
| Elevation | Approx. 1,000 m on the southwestern slope of Mount Agung (3,031 m peak) | UNESCO Tentative List (ref. 600), Britannica |
| Total temples in the complex | 23 interconnected public temples (plus auxiliary clan shrines) | Pura Agung Besakih Management Board, Indonesia Travel |
| Central temple Pura Penataran Agung | 6 stepped stone courtyards (or 7 counting the outer forecourt), 57 shrines | UNESCO (ref. 600), monograph by David Stuart-Fox |
| Five-point mandala (Panca Dewata) | Penataran Agung (Center), Gelap (East), Kiduling Kreteg (South), Ulun Kulkul (West), Batu Madeg (North) | Bali Cultural Heritage Registry, Wikipedia |
| Meru pagoda roof tiers | Odd numbers from 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 up to a maximum of 11 black ijuk palm-fiber roofs | Britannica, Indonesia Travel |
| Satellite coordinates | 8.3744° S (-8.3744), 115.4509° E | Wikidata (Q1155240), OpenStreetMap |
IVThe lie of the land and orientation
Balinese Hinduism orients every structure on the island according to the indigenous sacred architectural canon Asta Kosala Kosali and the spiritual axis of Kaja and Kelod, rather than the East Asian Eight Trigrams compass. In the Balinese spatial system, Kaja is the direction looking upward toward the sacred volcano Mount Agung (the pure positive realm of the gods and ancestors, corresponding to the human head), while Kelod is the direction looking downward toward the sea (where impurities drain away and where chthonic Bhuta Kala forces dwell, corresponding to the feet). The section below compares the Kaja and Kelod axis and the nine-directional Nawa Sanga grid at Besakih with the classical landform principles of this library.
Examining the grand mountain-and-water topography of Bali at 8.3744° S, 115.4509° E, Pura Besakih rests at an elevation of 1,000 meters on the southwestern flank of Mount Agung (the highest peak on Bali at over 3,031 meters). In classical landform analysis, Mount Agung is the supreme Ancestral Mountain (Grand Ancestor Mountain) of the entire island of Bali, the primary dragon vein (Dragon Vein (Long Mai)) from which the island's ridges and life-giving springs originate. The central sanctuary of Pura Penataran Agung sits atop an elongated volcanic ridge descending from the summit cone, flanked closely on its left and right sides by two deep volcanic ravines carrying mountain streams on the east and west (revered by the Balinese as the sacred waters of Amerta and Kamandalu). A central ridge embraced tightly on both flanks by two converging watercourses exemplifies the classical landform formation of Two Waters Flanking One Dragon (Lưỡng Water Jia Nhất Long), which locks the vital qi descending from Mount Agung into the central spine without allowing it to scatter laterally.
Regarding mountain orientation and the nine-sector grid, because Besakih lies on the southwestern slope of Mount Agung, the sacred upward direction of Kaja at this site aligns directly with the Northeast. In both Hindu cosmology (Nawa Sanga) and the Later Heaven Eight Trigrams of the Book of Changes, the Northeast holds profound significance: Hinduism calls the Northeast Airsanya (the sector of supreme Shiva), while East Asian cosmology assigns the Northeast to the trigram Ken (Gen vi Sơn, the Mountain trigram, described in classical lore as the gate where the old cycle ends and all living things are renewed). The six terraced courtyards of Pura Penataran Agung step upward from the Southwest (Kelod, facing the sea) toward the Northeast (Kaja, backed by Mount Agung as its rear backing, Rear Backing Mountain (Hou Zhen)), turning all 23 temples into a monumental stairway linking the ocean and human realm to the divine throne at the volcanic peak. The physical reality of this ridge flanked by two deep ravines was dramatically demonstrated during the March 1963 eruption, when molten lava flows naturally diverted down the eastern and western stream gorges while leaving the raised central spine bearing the Mother Temple untouched.
VThe annual Bhatara Turun Kabeh festival and the centennial Eka Dasa Rudra purification
Ritual life at Pura Besakih flows continuously throughout the year because two traditional calendars operate side by side on Bali: the Saka calendar (a 12-month lunisolar calendar of roughly 354 to 365 days) and the Pawukon calendar (an indigenous Javanese-Balinese cycle of 210 days divided into 30 seven-day Wuku weeks). With 23 public temples each celebrating its own founding anniversary (Odalan) every 210 days or on specific full moons, almost every week sees processions of worshippers climbing the stone stairs of Besakih balancing tall gebogan fruit and flower offerings on their heads.
| Time | Calendar system | Festival name | Observances and rituals at Pura Besakih |
|---|---|---|---|
| Full moon of the 10th month (Purnama Kedasa, around March or April) | Balinese Saka lunisolar calendar | Bhatara Turun Kabeh (The Gods Descend Together) | The largest annual festival at Pura Penataran Agung, lasting 21 days. Balinese Hindus believe that on the full moon of the 10th Saka month, deities from temples across the island and from the summit of Mount Agung descend together at the Padmasana Tiga throne. Sacred effigies and relics (Pralingga) are carried in grand procession to water sources for the Melasti purification ritual before hundreds of thousands of devotees gather to pray. |
| Every 210 days (Wednesday Buda Wage of the Kelawu week) | Balinese 210-day Pawukon calendar | Individual temple Odalan anniversaries and Galungan - Kuningan | Each of the 23 temples celebrates its own Odalan anniversary on a 210-day cycle (for example, the shrine of Ratu Mas Mageng celebrates on Buda Wage Kelawu). During Galungan (celebrating the victory of Dharma over Adharma) and Kuningan, tall curved bamboo poles (Penjor) line every terraced courtyard. |
| Once every 10 years (when the Saka year ends in 0) | Balinese Saka calendar (decennial rite) | Panca Wali Krama | A major ten-year purification sacrifice held across the Besakih complex to restore spiritual equilibrium and protect Bali from natural disasters and epidemics. |
| Once every 100 years (when the Saka year ends in 00, such as Saka 1900 in 1979) | Balinese Saka calendar (supreme centennial rite) | Eka Dasa Rudra Cosmic Purification | The grandest and most sacred ceremony in Balinese Hinduism, held once a century (or when ordered by high priests during cosmic crises, as in 1963) at Pura Besakih to propitiate the 11 forms of Rudra (Shiva) across the 11 directions of the universe (the 8 compass points, Center, Zenith, and Nadir). |
VILocation And How To Get There
- Address
- Làng Besakih (Desa Besakih), quận Rendang, huyện Karangasem, sườn tây nam núi lửa Agung, tỉnh Bali
- Getting there
- Located in Besakih Village, Rendang District, Karangasem Regency in eastern Bali, about 42 km (just over 1 hour by road) northeast of the cultural town of Ubud and roughly 60 km northeast of Ngurah Rai International Airport (Denpasar). The mountain road winds through scenic terraced river valleys in Sidemen and Rendang.
- Coordinates
- -8.3744, 115.4509
Pura Besakih Mother Temple is an active and deeply sacred sanctuary where Balinese Hindus pray daily. All visitors (both men and women) must wear a full-length sarong covering the legs and tie a selendang sash around the waist before entering the outer temple precinct. On ordinary days, visitors who are not practicing Hindus may walk along the main exterior stone stairways to admire the architecture through the open gateways and outer courtyards, but must not step inside the inner sanctum courtyards (reserved exclusively for Pemangku priests and worshippers kneeling in prayer), must never position themselves higher than officiating priests, and under traditional Balinese temple law (Awig-awig) women during menstruation are not permitted to enter the temple grounds.
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?Quick Questions
Why is Pura Besakih called the Mother Temple of Bali?
Pura Besakih is revered as the Mother Temple (Pura Ibu) or Universal Temple (Pura Kahyangan Jagat) because it is the oldest, largest, and highest-ranking sanctuary in Bali's island-wide temple hierarchy. While every Balinese village maintains three village temples (Kahyangan Tiga) and every household maintains its own family compound shrine, all clans, castes, and regions of Bali share a single supreme spiritual root across the 23 temples of Pura Besakih on Mount Agung.
Where does the name Besakih come from?
The name Besakih derives from the Old Balinese word Basuki and the Sanskrit name Vasuki, referring to the great serpent king (Naga Vasuki) who coiled around Mount Mandara during the Churning of the Ocean of Milk in Hindu mythology. The word Basuki also means safety and auspiciousness, invoking the blessing sought by the 8th-century sage Rsi Markandeya when he buried the Five Metals at the base of Mount Agung.
What is the meaning of the triple lotus throne Padmasana Tiga in the main temple?
The Padmasana Tiga is a high carved stone plinth supporting three side-by-side empty stone seats resting on the cosmic turtle Bedawang Nala and two Naga serpents. Because the Supreme Being Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa is invisible in Balinese Hinduism, no anthropomorphic statue is carved and empty thrones await divine descent instead: the three thrones draped in red, black, and white cloth represent the Trimurti (Brahma on the right, Vishnu on the left, and Shiva in the center).
What happened to Besakih Temple when Mount Agung erupted in 1963?
In March 1963, just as the Balinese community was conducting the once-in-a-century Eka Dasa Rudra cosmic purification ceremony at Besakih, Mount Agung erupted violently after more than a century of dormancy. Although tremors damaged several stone gates, the massive rivers of molten lava pouring down from the crater naturally divided into the two flanking stream ravines, flowing just meters past the temple walls without burning the main sanctuary, an event regarded by the Balinese as a miraculous sign of divine protection.
What are the multi-tiered black-roofed pagodas inside Besakih called?
The timber pagodas with multiple roofs thatched in black sugar-palm fiber (ijuk) are called Pelinggih Meru, symbolizing the cosmic mountain Mahameru where the gods dwell. Under sacred Balinese architectural rules, the roof tiers of a Meru tower are always built in odd numbers (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, up to a maximum of 11 tiers reserved for supreme deities such as Shiva and the deity of Mount Agung).